ZHAO Lantao ¹, HUANG Xile ², MAO Qing ³

(1. School of Fine Arts, Jingdezhen Ceramic University, Jingdezhen 333403, Jiangxi, China; 2. China National Light Industry Ceramic Research Institute, Jingdezhen Ceramic University, Jingdezhen 333001, Jiangxi, China; 3. School of Design and Art, Jingdezhen Ceramic University, Jingdezhen 333403, Jiangxi, China)

Extended abstract:[Background and purposes] During the Song and Yuan dynasties, Jingdezhen Kiln was an important production area for celadon-white porcelain. With the exchange and dissemination of porcelain-making techniques, especially the southward spread of porcelain sculpture techniques from the Northern Ding Kiln, the craftsmanship of celadon-white porcelain human-figure statues in Jingdezhen Kiln achieved significant progress and development. A large number of kiln sites were used to produce a considerable quantity of celadon-white porcelain wares and human-figure statues. In the Southern Song Dynasty, the types of human-figure statues were diverse, covering various categories, such as Buddhist and Taoist statues, zodiac porcelain figurines and so on. During the Yuan Dynasty, influenced by the prevalence of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as the changes in ceramic materials and technological innovations, large-scale and mature celadon-white porcelain human-figure statues were fired in Jingdezhen Kiln. Their themes and functions gradually expanded to opera stories, folk culture and other fields, showing a trend of literati orientation and secularization, with the related craftsmanship also becoming increasingly mature. This paper was aimed to systematically sort out the innovative developments in various aspects, such as the body and glaze material system, forming techniques, decorative methods and kiln furnace technologies of celadon-white porcelain human-figure statues, from Jingdezhen Kiln during the Song and Yuan dynasties. The internal logic of their technological evolution was explored, an in-depth analysis of the social and cultural factors that drove technological innovation, such as material development, consumer culture and religious dissemination, were conducted. It is intended to comprehensively clarify the development context and cultural connotations of the craftsmanship of celadon-white porcelain human-figure statues during this period.[Methods] Firstly, ancient literatures, such as Tao Ji (Record of Ceramics) and Jingdezhen Tao Lu (Record of Jingdezhen Ceramics) are consulted, while modern academic works, such as Chinese Ceramics to obtain relevant records of Jingdezhen Kiln's celadon - white porcelain sculptures during the Song and Yuan dynasties, are referred, to sort out their development clues from historical documents. Secondly, the physical objects collected in major museums, such as the Song-Dynasty White and Green Glazed Unglazed Porcelain Bodhisattva Guanyin and the Yuan-Dynasty Blue-White Glaze Water Moon Guanyin, were analyzed. By comparing the differences in modeling, decoration and techniques of the statues from different periods, it is attempted to visually demonstrate the development and changes of the techniques. Finally, referring to the archaeological excavation results of sites, such as Hutian Kiln Site and Luomaqiao Site, the unearthed fragments of celadon-white porcelain and ceramic molds were analyzed to study the development and evolution of material formulas and forming techniques from an archaeological perspective, thus providing physical evidence for the research.[Results] In terms of material technology, the material formula evolved from the "single-component formula" to the "two-component formula". In the Yuan Dynasty, adding kaolin to porcelain stone was used to improve the refractoriness of the body and reduced the deformation rate, significantly increasing the size of Yuan-Dynasty statues and breaking through the size limitations of Song-Dynasty statues. Regarding the forming technology, initially influenced by other kilns, molding techniques and a production model combining molding and hand-shaping were later developed in Jingdezhen Kiln. There was a wide variety of molds, including positive molds and negative molds, where the negative molds were further divided into single-piece molds, combined molds and multi-piece molds. The combination of molding and hand-shaping enabled improvement in production efficiency while taking into account the flexibility of artistic creation, and promoted the maturity of porcelain-sculpture techniques. Concerning the decorative techniques, multiple decorative processes, such as the combination of "section-molding" and "hand-shaping", line-carving and open-work carving, were integrated. By precisely controlling the glaze color of the celadon-white porcelain, the decoration became rich and diverse, skillfully integrating religious and secular elements and reflecting the characteristics of multi-cultural integration. In the aspect of kiln firing technology, the kiln type was evolved from the dragon kiln to the gourd kiln and then the mantou kiln. Although the dragon kiln had certain advantages, it had limitations, such as rapid cooling and uneven temperature distribution. The gourd kiln and the mantou kiln were more controllable. The mantou kiln was especially suitable for firing complex-shaped porcelain sculptures, effectively reducing the risk of deformation and collapse and hence promoting the development of firing techniques.[Conclusions] The celadon-white porcelain human figurines of Jingdezhen Kiln during the Song and Yuan dynasties were the product of the in-depth integration of porcelain-making craftsmanship and social culture. They not only carry religious and folk significance but also embody the exchanges and mutual learning with other kilns, reaching a new height in terms of artistry and craftsmanship. Through material innovation, improvement of forming techniques and innovation of decorative methods, a dual breakthrough in art and technology was achieved. These figurines not only reflect the superb porcelain-making skills of the time but also contain profound historical, cultural, aesthetic and humanistic connotations, becoming important witnesses to the social religious beliefs, cultural traditions and aesthetic pursuits of that era. The study of the celadon-white porcelain human figurines of Jingdezhen Kiln during this specific period of the Song and Yuan dynasties is expected to be helpful for the restoration of ceramic sculpture techniques of Jingdezhen Kiln and the inheritance and protection of cultural heritage.

Key words: Song and Yuan Dynasties; Jingdezhen; blue and white porcelain; character statues; skill